语言学期末总结
语言的结构类型：（一）词法类型：
1、孤立语：汉语、越南语、苗语、彝语2、屈折语：英语、俄语、德语、阿拉伯语
3、粘着语：土耳其语、维语、芬兰语、日语、朝鲜语4、编插语：美洲语
（二）句法类型SVO、SOV、VSO
语言学学科的发展：（一）传统语言学阶段
1、语文学阶段前4世纪~19世纪
1989年马建忠《马氏文通》开始真正开始语法研究2、历史比较语言学阶段
语言学开始走上独立的学科道路
普通语言学的建立：德国洪堡特《论人类语言结构的差异及其对人类精神发展的影响》（二）现代语言学阶段1、结构主义语言学
索绪尔“现代语言学之父”《普通语言学教程》A、区分了语言和言语两个重要概念。B、区分了内部语言学和外部语言学。C、区分了语言的共时性（静态）和历时性（动态）。
D、提出了语言是一种表示意念的符号系统，认为语言符号能指和所指的联系是任意
的。
E、强调在语言中各个要素及其构成成分都处于组合关系和聚合关系中。F、区分了词语的意义和价值。每个语言单位都具有意义。G、认为语言是形式而不是实体。
布龙菲尔德、萨丕尔代表作《语言学》2、转换生成语言学乔姆斯基
语言的功能语言的社会功能
一、语言是交际工具（核心）1、语言是人类特有的交际工具
人类语言和动物交际的根本区别：单位的明晰性、任意性、结构的二层性（音义）、
开放性（无限创造）、传授性、不受时地限制。
2、语言是人类最重要的交际工具3、语言是全民的交际工具二、语言是思维工具
思维总得用一种语言。民族、社会的劳动成果一旦固化，就可在此基础上进行。三、语言是文化的载体
语言是文化的一部分，语言记录文化、促进文化发展，文化影响语言发展。
语言是符号系统（一）语言的符号性
从语言内部结构特征看，语言在本质上是一种音义结合的符号系统语言符号的特点：
1、任意性：音义结合的任意性。语言是一个自足的开放的符号系统2、线条型：在语言交际中，语言符号只能一个接一个出现（二）语言的系统性
1、语言的构成基础：词汇和语法
2、语言的层级体系：音位→音节→语素→词→句子
3、语言的组合关系和聚合关系：组、聚是语言的两种根本关系。
语音和语义一、语音的特征
1、语音的生理特征：动力器官、发声器官、共鸣器官2、语音的物理属性：音高（调位）、音强、音长（时位）、音质二、描述某个音，如[P]：双唇、不送气的清塞音三、音位
归纳音位的原则和方法（重要）
1、辨义功能。着眼于音位对立、替换法。先设置一个语音环境（）au，分别将n、l放入环
境中，比较两者是否有区别。
2、互补分布。着眼于音位的非对立性。
3、语音相似。是对互补分布的补充、约束。如果互补分布的两个音素感到差别明显过大，
那么不属于用一音位。音位系统：
1、全部音质音位和非音质音位
2、常见的变体其条件变体出现的条件3、音位间的对立关系
4、音位之间的组合关系和聚合关系语流音变：
同化、异化、弱化、脱落、增音、减音、换位语法
（一）语法学分类：
1、根据研究对象不同，分为普通语法学与个别语法学普通语法学：以人类的各种语言的语法为研究对象，综合研究他们的共同的语法特征的学科。个别语法学：以某一种语言的语法为研究对象，研究其语法特征的学科。2、根据研究内容的不同，分为共时语法学和历时语法学
共时语法学：是对语言发展的某个阶段语法结构的描写和研究。历时语法学：是从一个时代到另一个时代的发展进程中，对语言的语法结构进行历史的研究，又叫历史语法学。
3、根据研究用途的不同，分为教学语法和其他语法如计算机语法
教学语法：指的是为进行语法教学而建立的一套语法规则体系。特点是规范、明确、简洁、实用，不必复杂细致。
计算机语法：为计算机信息处理而建立的一套语法体系，精确、可靠、严密。著作：《语言论》（美）布龙菲尔德1933，《语法讲义》朱德熙，《现代汉语语法研究》丁声树，《汉语语法分析问题》吕叔湘（二）语法范畴和语法手段
语法范畴：把具有相同性质的语法意义抽象概括而成的类型，通过词的形态来表达。1、性。名词、代词在语法上的性别类属。
2、数。名词、代词所表现的事物或现象的量的特征。
3、格。名词、代词与句子中其他词的关系。如宾格、主格、所有格。4、时。动词的语法范畴，表示动作发生的时间与说话时的时间关系。5、体。动词的语法范畴，表示动作的进行状态或类型。6、态。又叫“语态”，表示动作与主体之间的关系。
7、人称。动词的语法范畴，表示说话者本人和所说的话中的动作行为主体之间的关系。8、式。动词的语法范畴，说话人对所说内容的主观态度，又叫语气。9、级。形容词、副词的语法范畴，表示性质或属性的程度差别。
语法手段：附加、内部屈折、重叠、异根、重音移位、副助词、词序、零形式（三）词法
1、构形法：附加、重叠、内部屈折、异根、重音移位2、构词法：附加法、复合法、简缩法划分词类的标准：
1、形态标准：根据词类变化来确定词类。
2、功能标准：一是词与词的组合能力，二是词充当句子成分的能力。
3、意义标准：指语法意义不指词汇意义。汉语以功能标准为主，以意义标准为辅。中国第一部现代汉语语法专著《新著国语文法》1989年《马氏文通》马建忠中国第一部语法学专著（四）句法
句法中的常用手段：语序、虚词、形态，语调
句子成分分析法：又叫中心词分析法。从句子的语法意义出发，对句子的结构部分进行功能分析。它以句子内部各个成分之间的意义为依据，在分析过程中，先找主干，再找枝叶。直接成分分析法：又叫层次分析法，由布龙菲尔德首先提出。认为句子是有层次的，一般切分到不能再分为止。
句式转换的规则：移位、删除、添加、复写、替换多义或歧义产生的原因及其分化方法：
1、一种线性序列，多种组合层次。分化方法：层次分析法2、一种线性序列，一种组合层次。分化方法：标明句法关系
3、一种线性序列，一种组合成分，一种句法关系，多种深层意义。分化方法：转换分析法词汇
概念：某种语言或方言中全部词和固定词组的总和
扩展阅读：语言学期末总结
1Whatislanguage?Languageisameansofverbalcommunication.Itisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.1.verbalcommunication2.instrumentalinthatcommunicatingbyspeakingorwritingispurposeful3.socialandconventional.
2.Designfeaturesoflanguage识别特征Thefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguagescanbecalleddesignfeatureswhichcandistinguishhumanlanguagefromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.1Arbitrariness规约性referstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeanings.2Duality二层性Languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.3Creativity创造性meansthatlanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness.Recursivenessreferstotherulewhichcanbeappliedrepeatedlywithoutanydefinitelimit.Therecursivenatureoflanguageprovidesatheoreticalbasisforthepossibilityofcreatingendlesssentences.4Displacement移位性Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.
3Originoflanguage1.Thebow-wowtheory摹声说Inprimitivetimespeopleimitatedthesoundsoftheanimalcallsinthewildenvironmenttheylivedandspeechdevelopedfromthat.2.Thepooh-poohtheory感叹说Inthehardlifeofourprimitiveancestors,theyutterinstinctivesoundsofpains,angerandjoywhichgraduallydevelopedintolanguage.3.The“yo-he-ho”theory育声说Asprimitivepeopleworkedtogether,theyproducedsomerhythmicgruntswhichgraduallydevelopedintochantsandthenintolanguage.
4.Functionoflanguage1.Informative信息功能Theinformativefunctionmeanslanguageistheinstrumentofthoughtandpeopleoftenuseittocommunicatenewinformation.2Interpersonalfunction交际Theinterpersonalfunctionmeanspeoplecanuselanguagetoestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.3Performative施为Theperformativefunctionoflanguageisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersons,asinmarriageceremonies,thesentencingofcriminals,theblessingofchildren,thenamingofashipatalaunchingceremony,andthecursingofenemies.4Emotivefunction情感Theemotivefunctionisoneofthemostpowerfulusesoflanguagebecauseitissocrucialinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.5Phaticcommunion寒暄Thephaticcommunionmeanspeoplealwaysusesomesmall,seeminglymeaninglessexpressionssuchasGoodmorning,Godblessyou,Niceday,etc.,tomaintainacomfortablerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutanyfactualcontent.6Recreationalfunction娱乐Therecreationalfunctionmeanspeopleuselanguageforthesheerjoyofusingit,suchasababy’sbabblingorachanter’schanting.7Metalingualfunction元语言Themetalingualfunctionmeanspeoplecanuselanguagetotalkaboutitself.E.g.Icanusetheword“book”totalkaboutabook,andIcanalsousetheexpression“thewordbook”totalkaboutthesign“b-o-o-k”itself.5Whatislinguisticsisusuallydefinedasthescienceoflanguageoralternatively,asthescientificstudyoflanguage.Linguisticsisarichandexcitingfield.6Mainbranchesoflinguistics1.Phonetics语音学Phonology音系学Morphology形态学Syntax句法学Semantics语义学Pragmatics语用学
7Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics1.DescriptiveVS.Prescriptive描写VS规定2Synchronicvs.diachronic共时vs.历时Asynchronicstudytakesafixedinstant(usuallyatpresent)asitspointofobservation.Saussure’sdiachronicdescriptionisthestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.Thefictionofsynchronicdescriptionisessentialtolinguistics.
１☆3Langue&parole语言vs.言语F.deSaussure，Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuremadethedistinctioninordertosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Hebelieveswhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.4Competenceandperformance语言能力vs.语言运用alanguageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrulesiscalledthelinguisticcompetence,andtheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituationsiscalledperformance.Competenceenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandandindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.8Phonetics(语音学)studieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmittedandperceived.Articulatoryphonetics发音语音学isthestudyoftheproductionofspeechsoundsAcousticphonetics声学语音学isthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsoundsAuditoryphonetics听觉语音学isconcernedwiththeperceptionofspeechsounds
9Speech(vocal)organs(发音器官)arethosepartsofthehumanbodyinvolvedintheproductionofspeech.Itisstrikingtoseehowmuchofthehumanbodyisinvolvedintheproductionofspeech:thelungs,thetrachea,thethroat,thenose,andmouth.Pharyngealcavity咽腔Oral口腔Nasal鼻腔
Consonants辅音areproduced‘byaclosureinthevocaltract,orbyanarrowingwhichissomarkedthataircannotescapewithoutproducingaudiblefrictionVowel元音:avowelisproducedwithoutsuch‘stricture’sothat‘airescapesinarelativelyunimpededwaythroughthemouthornose’.Coarticulation协同发音:Whensuchsimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationsareinvolved,wecalltheprocesscoarticulation.
Broadtranscription:宽式标音Whenweuseasimplesetofsymbolsinourtranscription,itiscalledabroadtranscription.Narrowtranscription严式标音:Theuseofmorespecificsymbolstoshowmorephoneticdetailisreferredtoasanarrowtranscription.phonetictranscriptions音标:broadtranscription,narrowtranscription
10Assimilation同化:aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofneighboringsound.Assimilationisoftenusedsynonymouswithcoarticulation.Ifafollowingsoundinfluencesaprecedingsound,itisregressiveassimilation逆同化:e.g.can,tan,tenth,ninth,sink,mink,gooseberry,raspberry,cupboard,fivepence,haveto,usedto,pancake,sunglass.Progressiveassimilation顺同化istheconverseprocess,inwhichaprecedingsoundinfluencesafollowingsound,e.g.works,words,pears,writeslaughed,loved.11MorphemeandMorphology语素形态学
Morpheme:1.thesmallestunitoflanguage2.cannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunits3.alteringthemeaning.
Morphology:1.thesystematicstudyofmorphemeisabranchoflinguistics2.itstudiestheinternalstructureofwords3.andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.
TypesofMorphemesFreemorphemeandboundmorpheme2.Root,affix,stem3.Inflectionalaffixandderivationalaffix.
２Allomorph(语素变体)wordsshareacommonmorpheme（词素）in~,inotherwords,il~,im~andir~areexceptionallythevariationformofonemorphemein~.allomorphsofthe
samemorphemeowingtotheinfluenceofthesoundstowhichitattaches.Otherinstancesaresuchasthevariationofpluralformsofnouns:-s,-es,-en,-ee-,-ceandves.{选择判断}12Lexicalchangeproper（构词法）1.Invention新创词语Sinceeconomicactivitiesarethemostimportantanddynamicinhumanlife,manynewlexicalitemscomedirectlyfromtheconsumeritems,theirproducersortheirbrandnames.例nylon2.Blending混成法Blendingisarelativelycomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtwowordsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstwordandthefinalpartofthesecondword,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetwowords.例e-book,3.Abbreviation缩写词Anewwordiscreatedbycuttingthefinalpart,cuttingtheinitialpartorcuttingboththeinitialpartsoftheoriginalwords.例flu4.Acronym首字母缩写Acronymismadeupfromthefirstlettersofthenameofanorganization,whichhasaheavilymodifiedheadword.例CEO5.Back-formation逆构词法Back-formationreferstoanabnormaltypeofword-formationwhereashorterwordisderivedbydeletinganimagedaffixfromalongerformalreadyinthelanguage.例edit,6.Analogicalcreation类推造字Theprincipleofanalogicalcreationcanaccountfortheco-existenceoftwoforms,regularandirregular,intheconjugationofsomeEnglishverbs.例workwroughtworked,7.Borrowin借用Englishinitsdevelopmenthasmanagedtowidenhervocabularybyborrowingwordsfromotherlanguages.Greek,Latin,French,Spanish,Arabicandotherlanguageshaveallplayedanactiveroleinthisprocess.例typhoon8Classshift词性转换Byshiftingwordclassonecanchangethemeaningofawordfromaconcreteentityornotiontoaprocessorattribution.例HOG，（N）apig(V)totakeandkeepforoneself.
13【选、填】Syntax(句法学)referstotherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orsimply,thestudyoftheformationofsentences.
SyntacticRelations句法1.PositionalRelations句中词语位置转变2.RelationofSubstitutability(替代)例Theboy\\mansmiles.3.RelationofCo-occurrence(同现)例Aprettygirlsmiles14【选、解】SenseRelations涵义关系
⑴Hyponymy上下义关系Itisamatterofclassmembership.Thatistosay,whenxisakindofy,thelowertermxisthehyponym,andtheuppertermyisthesuperordinate.Twoor
morehyponymsofthesameonesuperordinatearecalledco-hyponyms,e.g.underflower,therearepeony,jasmine,tulip,violet,rose,etc.,
⑵Antonymy反义词It’sthetermusedforoppositenessofmeaningondifferentdimension.isthenameforoppositenessrelation.
①.Gradableantonymy等级反义关系isthecommonesttypeofantonymy.e.g.good/bad
②.Complementaryantonymy互补反义关系Themembersofapairincomplementaryantonymyarecomplementarytoeachother.Thatisnotonlytheassertionofonemeansthedenialoftheother,thedenialofonealsomeanstheassertionoftheother,e.g.alive/dead,
③.Converseantonymy反向反义关系isaspecialtypeofantonymyinthatthemembersofapairdonotconstituteapositive-negativeopposition.Theyshowthereversalofarelationshipbetweentwoentities,e.g.parent/child,
３⑶Synonymy同义词
isthetechnicalnameforthesamenessrelation.例buyandpurchase
15Immediateconstituentanalysis(ICanalysis)直接成分分析referstotheanalysisofasentenceintermsofitsimmediateconstituentswordgroups(phrases),whichareinturn
analyzedintotheimmediateconstituentsoftheirown,andtheprocessgoesonuntiltheultimatesakeofconvenience.
S22
NPVP
DetNVNP
DetN
Theboyatetheapple
AmericanStructuralism美国结构主义TheLondonSchool1944ThePragueSchool(布拉格)时间1926内容1.itseeslanguageintermsoffunction2.thedistinctionbetweenphoneticsandphonology,1differenttypesoflinguisticdescriptionmayJ.R.Firthbeappropriatefordifferentpurposes.2.systemiclinguisticsthestructureofeachlanguageshouldbeBoasandSapirdescribedwithoutreferencetotheallegedL.Bloomfielduniversalityofsuchcategoriesastense,moodandpartsofspeech.linguisticsandfunctional代表Trubetzkoy16Endocentricconstructions(向心结构)Anendocentricconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalent,tooneofitsconstituents,whichservesasthecenter,orhead,ofthewhole.例如：“看书=看”，“说明白=说”。Exocentricconstructions（离心结构）Theexocentricconstructionisdefinednegativelyasaconstructionwhosedistributionisnotfunctionallyequivalenttoanyofitsconstituents.例如“从上海≠从≠上海”，“飞的≠飞≠的”17Thereferentialtheory(指称理论)Thetheoryofmeaningwhichrelatesthemeaningofawordtothethingitrefersto,orstandsfor,isknownasthereferentialtheory.18WhatisCognition认知⑴Mentalprocessesofanindividual,informationprocessing⑵Mentalprocessorfacultyofknowing,includingawareness,perception,reasoning,andjudgment.
【填、选】Threeapproachestothestudyoflanguageandcognition:⑴Theformalapproach⑵Thepsychologicalapproach⑶Theconceptualapproach
４19.Psycholinguistics心理语言学isthestudyofpsychologicalaspectsoflanguage;itusuallystudiesthepsychologicalstatesandmentalactivityassociatedwiththeuseoflanguage
Languageacquisition语言习得languageproduction语言输出languagecomprehension语言理解
Children’sspontaneousspeech儿童语言习得1.Holophrasticstage、Two-wordstage、Stageofthree-wordutterances、Fluentgrammaticalconversationstage.
20TheSapir-Whorfhypothesis沃夫理论ourlanguagehelpsmouldourwayofthinkingand,consequently,differentlanguagesmayprobablyexpressouruniquewaysof
understandingtheworld.理解Ontheonehand,languagemaydetermineourthinkingpatterns;ontheotherhand,similaritybetweenlanguageisrelative,thegreatertheirstructuraldifferentiationis,themorediversetheirconceptualizationoftheworldwillbe.
21SpeechActTheory(言语行为理论)isanutteranceasafunctionalunitincommunication
Atheoryoftheillocutionaryact行事行为理论1.Locutionaryact（发话行为）:AdistinctionismadebyAustininthetheoryofspeechactsbetweenthreedifferenttypesofacts
involvedinorcausedbytheutteranceofasentence.Alocutionaryactisthesayingofsomethingwhichismeaningfulandcanbeunderstood.2Illocutionaryact（行事行为）:Anillocutionaryactisusingasentencetoperformafunction.3Perlocutionaryact（取效行为:Aperlocutionaryactistheresultsoreffectsthatareproducedbymeansofsayingsomething.22Language,CultureandSociety①Generally,therelationofLtoCisthatofparttowhole,forLispartofC.②Theknowledgeandbeliefsthatconstituteapeople’sculturearehabituallyencodedandtransmittedinL.③languageisregardedasamirrorofsociety,throughwhichwecanunderstandsocialactivitiesofacertainsocietybetter.④functionally,societyprovideslanguagewithasuitablecontextofuse,inwhichwecanenjoyaspectsoflanguagevividlyandtruthfully
23TheCooperativePrinciple合作原则Indailyconversationpeopledonotusuallysaythingsdirectlybuttendtoimplythem；referstothe“co-operation”betweenspeakersinusingthemaximsduringtheconversation.Therearefourconversationalmaxims:(1)Themaximofquantity:(2)Themaximofquality:(3)Themaximofrelation:(4)Themaximofmanner:24ThreeSensesofword1.Aphysicallydefinableunit2.wordbothasageneraltermandaspecificterm3.Agrammaticalunit
25L.Bloomfield:1Helaidmuchemphasisontheobjectivityandsystematicityofobservabledatainhisstudyoflanguage.2linguisticsisabranchofpsychology,andspecificallyofthepositivisticbranchofpsychologyknownasbehaviorism.
５名词解释
Competence:Competenceisanencyclopediaoflanguage.Itisanessentialpartofperformance.Moreover,theknowledgeinvolvedincompetenceisgenerallyunconscious.
Complementarydistribution:Thedifferentallophonesofthesamephonemeneveroccurinthesamephoneticcontext.Whentwoormoreallophonesofonephonemeneveroccurinthesamelinguisticenvironmenttheyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.
Compositionalanalysis:Itdefinesthemeaningofalexicalelementintermsofsemanticcomponents,orsemanticfeatures.Forexample,themeaningofthewordboymaybeanalyzedintothreecomponents:HUMAN,YOUNGandMALE.SimilarlygirlmaybeanalyzedintoHUMAN,YOUNGandFEMALE.
Conversationalimplicature:whenpeoplearetalkingwitheachother,theymusttrytoconversesmoothlyandsuccessfully.Inacceptingspeakers’presuppositions,listenershavetoassumethataspeakerisnottryingtomisleadthem.However,inrealcommunication,theintentionofthespeakerisoftennottheliteralmeaningofwhatheorshesays.Therealintentionimpliedinthewordsiscalledconversationalimplicature.
CaseGrammar:Itisanapproachthatstressestherelationshipofelementsinasentence.ItisatypeofgenerativegrammardevelopedbyC.J.Fillmoreinthelate1960s.Cohesion:TheCohesionshowswhetheracertaintagmemeisdominatingothertagmemesorisdominatedbyothers.
Displacement:Itmeansthathumanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconcepts,whicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofcommunication.Distinctivefeatures:Itreferstothefeaturesthatcandistinguishonephonemefromanother.Ifwecangroupthephonemesintotwocategories:onewiththisfeatureandtheotherwithout,thisfeatureiscalledadistinctivefeature.
Entailment:Itisbasicallyasemanticrelation(orlogicalimplication),anditcanbeclarifiedwiththefollowingsentences:a.TomdivorcedJane.b.JanewasTom’swife.Intermsoftruthvalue,thefollowingrelationshipsexistbetweenthesetwosentences:whenAistrue,Bmustbealsotrue;whenBisfalse,Amustalsobefalse.WhenBistrue,Amaybetrueorfalse.ThereforewecansayAentailsB.
FSP:ItstandsforFunctionalSentencePerspective.Itisatheoryoflinguisticanalysiswhichreferstoananalysisofutterances(ortexts)intermsoftheinformationtheycontain..Hierarchicalstructure:Itisthesentencestructurethatgroupswordsintostructuralconstituentsandshowsthesyntacticcategoryofeachstructuralconstituent,suchasNP,VPandPP.Horn’sQ-principle:1)Makeyourcontributionsufficient(cf.quantity);(2)Sayasmuchasyoucan(givenR).
ICanalysis:Immediateconstituentanalysis,ICanalysisforshort,referstotheanalysisofasentenceintermsofitsimmediateconstituentswordgroups(phrases),whichareinturnanalyzedintotheimmediateconstituentsoftheirown,andtheprocessgoesonuntiltheultimatesakeofconvenience.
Linguafranca:Alinguafrancaisavarietyoflanguagethatservesasacommonspeechforsocialcontactamonggroupsofpeoplewhospeaksdifferentnativelanguagesordialects.
６Locutionaryact:Alocutionaryactisthesayingofsomethingwhichismeaningfulandcanbeunderstood.
LAD:ispositedbyChomskyinthe1960sasadeviceeffectivelypresentinthemindsofchildrenbywhichagrammaroftheirnativelanguageisconstructed.
Proposition:Itistheresultoftheabstractionofsentences,whicharedescriptionsofstatesofaffairsandwhichsomewritersseeasabasicelementofsentencemeaning.Forexample,thetwosentences“CaesarinvadedGaul”and“GaulwasinvadedbyCaesar”holdthesameproposition.Performative:Inspeechacttheoryanutterancewhichperformsanact,suchasWatchout(=awarning).
Reference:Itiswhatalinguisticformreferstointherealworld;itisamatteroftherelationshipbetweentheformandthereality.Regionaldialect:isaspeechvarietyspokenbythemembersofaparticulargrouporstratumofaspeechcommunity.
Register:referstothelanguagevarietyappropriateforuseinparticularspeechsituationsonwhichdegreesofformalitydepends.
Synchroniclinguistics:Itreferstothestudyofalanguageatagivenpointintime.Thetimestudiedmaybeeitherthepresentoraparticularpointinthepast;synchronicanalysescanalsobemadeofdeadlanguages,suchasLatin.Synchroniclinguisticsiscontrastedwithdiachroniclinguistics,thestudyofalanguageoveraperiodoftime.
Soundassimilation:Speechsoundsseldomoccurinisolation.Inconnectedspeech,undertheinfluenceoftheirneighbors,arereplacedbyothersounds.Sometimestwoneighboringsoundsinfluenceeachotherandarereplacedbyathirdsoundwhichisdifferentfrombothoriginalsounds.Thisprocessiscalledsoundassimilation.
Suprasegmentalfeature:Thephoneticfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures;thesearethephonologicalpropertiesofsuchunitsasthesyllable,theword,andthesentence.Themainsuprasegmentalonesincludesstress,intonation,andtone
Syntax:Syntaxreferstotherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orsimply,thestudyoftheformationofsentences.
Sociolinguistics:Definedinitsbroadestway,sociolinguistics,asubdisciplineoflinguistics,isthestudyoflanguageinrelationtosociety.Itisconcernedwithlanguagevariation,languageuse,theimpactofextra-linguisticfactorsonlanguageuse,etc.
Tracetheory:Afterthemovementofanelementinasentencetherewillbeatraceleftintheoriginalposition.ThisisthenotiontraceinT-Ggrammar.It’ssuggestedthatifwehavethenotiontrace,allthenecessaryinformationforsemanticinterpretationmaycomefromthesurfacestructure.E.g.ThepassiveDamsarebuiltbybeavers.differsfromtheactiveBeaversbuiltdams.inimplyingthatalldamsarebuiltbybeavers.IfweaddatraceelementrepresentedbythelettertafterbuiltinthepassiveasDamsarebuilttbybeavers,thenthedeepstructureinformationthattheworddamswasoriginallytheobjectofbuiltisalsocapturedbythesurfacestructure.Tracetheoryprovestobenotonlytheoreticallysignificantbutalsoempiricallyvalid.
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